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经典的永恒【阿波罗登月计划】 人类首次登月 历史化做瞬间的永恒
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阿波罗的传说
"阿波罗"是谁?
是古希腊神话中的太阳神,光明之神.阳神阿波罗是希腊奥林珀斯十二主神之一,是宙斯与黑暗女神勒托(Leto)的儿子,阿耳忒弥斯的孪生兄弟.阿波罗又名福波斯(Phoebus),意思是"光明"或"光辉灿烂".阿波罗是光明之神,在阿波罗身上找不到黑暗,他从不说谎,光明磊落,所以他也称真理之神.阿波罗很擅长弹奏七弦琴,美妙的旋律有如天籁;阿波罗又精通箭术,他的箭百发百中,从未射失;阿波罗也是医药之神,把医术传给人们;而且由于他聪明,通晓世事,所以他也是寓言之神.阿波罗掌管音乐,医药,艺术,寓言,是希腊神话中最多才多艺,也是最美最英俊的神只,阿波罗同时是男性美的典型.
相传,阿波罗是天神宙斯与女神勒托所生之子.当初,神后赫拉发现宙斯与勒托要好,怒火冲天,她残酷地迫害勒托.可怜的勒托只好东躲西藏,到处流浪.后来勒托终于在爱琴海上找到了一个藏身的小岛——德罗斯岛.这是一个浮岛,常在大海上漂浮.在岛上的一个山洞里,勒托生下了一对双胞胎.男孩取名为阿波罗,女孩取名为阿尔忒弥斯.母子三人在浮岛上过着无忧无虑的生活.可是好景不长,赫拉发现了他们,派一条巨蟒前去杀害勒托母子.
这条巨蟒是非常恶毒和残忍的大害虫.它在渡海时被海神波赛冬发现了.波赛冬掀起大风大浪挡住了巨蟒的路,使勒托母子免遭伤害.后来,他们母子终于摆脱了困境,回到奥林匹斯山众神行列之中.青年阿波罗为民除害,杀死了那条巨蟒.人们为了表达对英雄阿波罗的敬仰,修建了一座阿波罗庙.
后来,阿波罗成为举世闻名的太阳神.他高居于天上,住的宫殿周围有高大,发光的柱子,上面镶着黄金和火红的宝石.其左右有日神,月神,年神,世纪神和四季神等.每当黑夜即将过去,住在东方的黎明女神就会醒来,打开阿波罗寝宫的大门.当清晨的星星越来越稀少,直至看不见时,阿波罗便驾着有四匹骏马拉着的太阳车,在天空上巡视大地,将光明和温暖带给地球上的人类和万物.
太阳对地球上的生物的确太重要了,因此古人才把许多美德和本领集于太阳神一身,把它当作神灵来崇拜.本世纪60年代,美国科学家还把登月宇宙飞船命名为"阿波罗".
[ 本帖最后由 威尼斯的狼 于 15-8-2006 02:05 PM 编辑 ] |
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楼主 |
发表于 1-7-2006 08:20 PM
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“阿波罗”登月计划的历来
从“水星”到“阿波罗”计划
“水星”计划是美国1958年开始实施的第一个载人航天计划。当苏联于1961年4月12日把航天员加加林送上天成功地完成轨道飞行时，“水星”飞船尚处于无人试验阶段，直到1962年才进行首次载人轨道飞行。“水星”计划于1963年结束，共完成25次飞行试验，其中包括4次动物飞行，2次载人弹道飞行，4次载人轨道飞行，耗资约4亿美元。
美国通过“水星”计划证明人能够在空间环境中生存和有效地驾驶飞船，也取得了载人飞船设计的初步经验。但是在这一回合的载人航天竞争中输给了苏联，突出表现为载人上天的时间落后于苏联，航天运载能力也处于劣势。为改变这种局面，经美国航宇局和冯·布劳恩等火箭专家论证，提出美国在60年代经过努力能够达到而又刚好超出苏联能力的目标是载人登月。于是，美国总统肯尼迪于1961年5月25日宣布了“阿波罗”载人登月计划。
作为从“水星”到“阿波罗”计划之间过渡，美国于1961年11月至1966年11月实施了“双子星座”计划。其主要任务是研究、发展载人登月的技术和训练航天员长时间飞行及舱外活动的能力。该计划历时5年，完成了10次环地轨道载人飞行，每次2人，共花费12.8亿美元。此外，美国为实施“阿波罗”计划还研制了“徘徊者”、“勘测者”、“月球轨道环行器”无人月球探测器、土星族重型运载火箭，以及由逃逸系统、指令舱、服务舱和登月舱组成的阿波罗飞船，这些工作为1969年把人送上月球奠定了坚实的技术基础。
“阿波罗”工程的实施
美国于20世纪60年代至70年代初组织实施的载人登月工程，或称“阿波罗”计划。它是世界航天史上具有划时代意义的一项成就。工程开始于1961年5月，至1972年12月第6次登月成功结束，历时约11年，耗资255亿美元。在工程高峰时期，参加工程的有2万家企业、200多所大学和80多个科研机构，总人数超过30万人。
登月方案包括论证飞船登月飞行轨道和确定载人飞船总体布局。从“阿波罗”号飞船的3种飞行方案中选定月球轨道交会方案，相应地确定由指挥舱、服务舱和登月舱组成飞船的总体布局方案。
为登月飞行进行准备的4项辅助计划是：①“徘徊者”号探测器计划(1961—1965年)：共发射9个探测器，在不同的月球轨道上拍摄月球表面状况的照片1．8万张，以了解飞船在月面着陆的可能性。②“勘测者”号探测器计划(1966—1968年)：共发射5个自动探测器在月球表面软着陆，通过电视发回8．6万张月面照片，并探测了月球土壤的理化特性数据。③“月球轨道环行器”计划(1966-19677年)：共发射3个绕月飞行的探测器，对40多个预选着陆区拍摄高分辨率照片，获得 l000多张小比例尺高清晰度的月面照片，据此选出约10个预计的登月点。④“双子星座”号飞船计划(1965—1966年)：先后发射10艘各载2名宇航员的飞船，进行医学—生物学研究和操纵飞船机动飞行、对接和进行舱外活动的训练。
“阿波罗”号飞船使用大推力的“土星”号运载火箭发射。运载火箭研制分两个阶段进行：①研制“土星”1号和1B号，用以获取大型运载火箭的研制经验并进行“阿波罗”号飞船的 飞行试验。②研制“土星”5号巨型3级运载火箭作为飞船登月的 运载工具。
1966-1968年进行了6次不载人飞行试验，在近地轨道上鉴定飞船的指挥舱、服务舱和登月舱，考验登月舱的动力 装置。1968—1969年，发射了“阿波罗”7、8、9号飞船，进行载人飞行试验。主要作环绕地球、月球飞行和登月舱脱离环月轨道的降 落模拟试验、轨道机动飞行和模拟会合、模拟登月舱与指挥舱的分 离和对接。按登月所需时间进行了持续11天的飞行，检验飞船的可靠性。1969年5月18日发射的“阿波罗”10号飞船进行了登月全过程的演练飞行，绕月飞行31圈，两名宇航员乘登月舱下降到 离月面15.2公里的高度。
“阿波罗”号飞船由指挥舱、服务舱和登月舱3个部分组成。
指挥舱 宇航员在飞行中生活和工作的座舱，也是全飞船的 控制中心。指挥舱为圆锥形，高3．2米，重约6吨。指挥舱分前 舱、宇航员舱和后舱3部分。前舱内放置着陆部件、回收设备和姿 态控制发动机等。宇航员舱为密封舱，存有供宇航员生活14天的 必需品和救生设备。后舱内装有10台姿态控制发动机，各种仪器 和贮箱，还有姿态控制、制导导航系统以及船载计算机和无线电分系统等。
服务舱 前端与指挥舱对接，后端有推进系统主发动机喷管。 舱体为圆筒形，高6。7米，直径4米，重约25吨。主发动机用于轨 道转移和变轨机动。姿态控制系统由16台火箭发动机组成，它们 还用于飞船与第三级火箭分离、登月舱与指挥舱对接和指挥舱与 服务舱分离等。
登月舱 由下降级和上升级组成，地面起飞时重14．7吨，宽 4．3米，最大高度约7米。①下降级：由着陆发动机、4条着陆腿和 4个仪器舱组成。②上升级：为登月舱主体。宇航员完成月面活 动后驾驶上升级返回环月轨道与指挥舱会合。上升级由宇航员座舱、返回发动机、推进剂贮箱、仪器舱和控制系统组成。宇航员座； 舱可容纳2名宇航员(但无座椅)，有导航、控制、通信、生命保障和 电源等设备。
“阿波罗”11号飞船于1969年7月20-21日首次实现人登上月球的理想。此后，美国又相继6次发射“阿波罗”号 飞船，其中5次成功。总共有12名航天员登上月球。
“阿波罗”11号飞船登月飞行1969年7月16日由“土星”5 号火箭运载“阿波罗”11号飞船升空。第三级火箭熄火时格飞船 送至环绕地球运行的低高度停泊轨道。第三级火箭第二次点火加 速，将飞船送人地—月过渡轨道。飞船与第三级火箭分离，飞船沿 过渡轨道飞行2．5天后开始接近月球，由服务舱的主发动机减速， 使飞船进入环月轨道。宇航员N．A．阿姆斯特朗和E．E．奥尔德林 进入登月舱，驾驶登月舱与母船分离，下降至月面实现软着陆。另 一名宇航员仍留在指挥舱内，继续沿环月轨道飞行。登月宇航员 在月面上展开太阳电池阵，安设月震仪和激光反射器，采集月球岩 石和土壤样品22千克，然后驾驶登月舱的上升级返回环月轨道， 与母船会合对接，随即抛弃登月舱，起动服务舱主发动机使飞船加 速，进入月—地过渡轨道。在接近地球时飞船进入再人走廊，抛掉 服务舱，使指挥舱的圆拱形底朝前，在强大的气动力作用下减速。 进人低空时指挥舱弹出3个降落伞，进一步降低下降速度。“阿波罗”11号飞船指挥舱于7月24日在太平洋夏威夷西南海面溅落。
“阿波罗”12-17号飞船从1969年11月至1972年12月，美国相继发射了“阿波罗”12、13、14、15、16、17号飞船，其中除“阿波罗”13号因服务舱液氧箱爆炸中止登月任务(两名宇航员驾驶飞船安全返回地面)外，均登月成功。 |
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楼主 |
发表于 1-7-2006 08:24 PM
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人类首次登月 历史化做瞬间的永恒
迄今为止，阿波罗登月是历时最长、规模最大、投资最多、最富传奇性的人类对太空的探险行动。早在1957年就开始设想阿波罗登月计划，经过若干年科学、技术和财政支持的多方面综合论证，1961年5月25日，美国正式宣布实施该项计划。历时10年多时间，于1972年12月底阿波罗登月计划结束。参加阿波罗登月计划的，除美国航空航天局宇航中心外，先后有 120所高等学校,20000家工厂、400多万人，耗去资金250亿美元。
在执行阿波罗登月计划的10年时间里，共进行了17次飞行试验，包括6次无人亚轨道和地球轨道飞行、1次载人地球轨道飞行、3次载人月球轨道飞行、7次载人登月飞行（其中6次成功，1次失败）。
阿波罗重50吨、高25米，装在高85米的土星V运载火箭上，合成高度达110米，相当于一座36层现代化大楼的高度。飞船由3部分组成。指挥舱高3.6米，最宽处近4米，约有一辆旅行车大小；服务舱长7.3米，内装飞船主要发动机、电源、水、氧以及仪器设备；登月舱高6.9米，直径9.2米，重约16吨，分上升和下降舱段两部分。土星V火箭由三级组成。第一级火箭工作2.5分钟，可使飞船速度达每秒2.7公里。飞船飞到离地60公里高度时，第一级火箭脱落后坠入海洋中。接着第二级点火，第二级火箭点火后工作约6分钟，飞船速度可达每秒6.8公里，当飞行高度达 180公里时，第二级火箭脱落，第三级火箭接着点火，工作约2分钟，即起飞后12分钟，飞船速度达到每秒7.9公里的第一宇宙速度。
进入地球轨道后，第三级火箭再启动工作约5分钟，使飞船达到每秒10.9公里的第二宇宙速度。这时飞船逸出地球飞往月球。若干小时后，飞船与第三级火箭脱离，靠惯性飞行约3天进入月球轨道。当飞船飞至距地球约32万公里时，它受地球和月球的引力正好抵消，速度降到最低。在这之后月球的引力影响逐渐增加，当飞船速度增至每秒12.2公里时，制动火箭降低速度，进入月球轨道。
由于月球围绕地球公转原因，月球从飞船发射时的位置转过约30多度。飞船进入月球轨道后，2名准备登月的航天员从指挥舱进入登月舱。登月舱与指挥舱脱离并开动下降发动机。离月面20.4公里时，用自动控制降落器控制降落；离月面2公里时，进行盘旋，选择登月位置；在降落点上空150米时，以每秒0.9米的速度下降，在月球的探险活动结束后，航天员再爬上登月舱准备返航。航天员控制推力1.6吨的上升发动机点火，使上升舱段以下降舱段作发射台发射起飞，飞行4分钟进入16～83公里的月球轨道，逐步接近指挥舱并最后完成和它的对接。
航天员进入指挥舱后，抛掉登月舱，并开动服务舱发动机使飞船获每秒2.4公里的速度，脱离月球轨道，开始返回地球。离地球约640公里时，开制动发动机，离开轨道，飞向溅落区，抛掉服务舱，进入稀薄大气层，在南太平洋上溅落，由航空母舰上的直升飞机进行搜索打捞工作。
1969年7月16日，载着3名航天员的阿波罗11号载人飞船，史无前例地启程飞往月球，开始执行人类首次对月球的冒险探测行动。经过长途跋涉，飞行约38万公里的距离，5天后的7月21日，阿波罗11号终于飞抵月球轨道。
人类的两位使者，航天员阿姆斯特朗及其同伴奥德林要进入登月舱，开始驾驶登月舱进行登月下降。另一名航天员则驾驶指挥舱继续绕月球轨道飞行，在进行科学考察的同时，和登月舱的同事保持通讯联系，一旦登月活动发生意外或危险，负责救援。好在一切顺利，登月舱在月球的静海着陆。指令长阿姆斯特朗首先爬出舱门，站在5米高的小平台上，面对这陌生、荒凉和神秘的月球，举目四望片刻。不知他此时此刻怀着怎样的心情，他先伸出左脚，一步一步地爬下扶梯。
这时全世界数亿人围坐电视机前观看了这一轰动全球的登月创举。只见阿姆斯特朗的左脚小心翼翼地首先触及月面，而右脚还停留在登月舱上。当他发现左脚陷入月面很少后，才鼓起勇气将右脚也踩上月面。就这样，阿姆斯特朗作为地球人类的使者，首先登上了月球表面。随后同伴奥德林也踏上了月球，为纪念这伟大的有意义的探险行动，两位使者在月球上安放了一块金属纪念牌，上刻“1969年7月，地球人在月球首次着陆处，我们为人类和平来到这里”。
他们在月面停留 21小时18分钟，进行了一系列实地月球考察，然后带上采集的月球土壤和月岩标本，启程返航。他们搬动登月舱的控制器，炸开爆炸螺栓，使上升发动机点火，起飞升入月空，登月舱进入月球轨道，航天员从登月舱顶端的光学观察窗可以在对接时观察指挥舱，用调节高度和方向的小型变轨发动机调节飞行轨道，使其逐渐接近指挥舱。然后通过仪器使登月舱对准指挥舱，以每秒7.6厘米的速度实施并完成对接。两位航天员带着月球样品及其他物件，费力地爬过连结通道，回到指挥舱和指挥舱驾驶员会合，然后抛掉登月舱，使它撞击在月球上并进行一次月震试验。启动服务舱发动机，飞船获得每秒2.4公里速度后，逸出月球轨道，正式进入返回地球航程。7月24日，飞船安全溅落在南太平洋上，从而完成了人类历史上的首次登月探险任务。
阿波罗登月飞行共进行7次，参加的航天员共21人，其中有12人登上月球。登月航天员的平均年龄40岁左右。其他几次登月飞行的时间是：阿波罗12号的飞行是从1969年11月14日至24日，在月球的风暴海降落；13号的飞行从1970年4月11日至17日，因故障中途返航，未能登月；14号的飞行从1971年1月31日至2月9日，在月球的薄拉莫勒地区降落；15号的飞行从1971年7月26日至8月7日，在月球的亚平宁山哈得利峡谷降落；16号的飞行从1972年4月16日至27日，在月球的迪卡尔高地降落；17号的飞行从1972年12月6日至19日，在月球的曹拉斯利特罗山脉降落，它历时12天又14小时，为飞行时间最长的一次。
阿波罗登月，除考察外，还在月球上建立了核动力科学站；驾驶月球车进行活动；采集的月岩月土标本达400千克，都带回地球做进一步科学分析。
阿波罗登月的成功，无疑具有伟大的科学和技术意义，因为它是人类第一次离开地球而到达别的天体，是人类向太空渗透的新里程碑，是一次飞跃。在人类向太空继续渗透、探索宇宙的奥秘时，月球还将成为桥头堡。登月的成功，也为人类开拓新的疆域，开发利用月球创造了条件。
阿波罗登月计划完成之后，美国决定在以后的几十年内不再进行。这样，为登月飞行研制的精良技术设备，其中包括土星运载工具、飞船和许多实验设备就不再需要了，这一事件曾引起各种议论。至于美国为什么要做出这样的决定，则是一个谜。 |
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发表于 1-7-2006 08:33 PM
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发表于 1-7-2006 08:39 PM
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阿波罗计划
阿波罗计划（Project Apollo‎）或作阿波罗工程，是美国从1961年到1972年从事的一系列载人登月飞行任务。在1960年代的十年中主要致力于完成载人登月和安全返回的目标。在1969年阿波罗11号宇宙飞船达成了这个目标，尼尔·阿姆斯特朗成为第一个踏上月球地面的人类。为了进一步执行在月球的科学探测，阿波罗计划一直延续到1970年代早期。总共耗资约240亿美元，因此有人认为，资金是美国能领先一步登月的最大因素。
美国国家航空和航天局执行的迄今为止最庞大的月球探测计划。“阿波罗”飞船的任务包括为载人登月飞行作准备和实现载人登月飞行。这项计划已于1972年底结束。它详细地揭示了月球表面特性、物质化学成份、光学特性并探测了月球重力、磁场、月震等。
阿波罗计划徽标
月球轨道中的指令/服务舱
各次任务
阿波罗计划中包括11次载人任务，从阿波罗7号一直到阿波罗17号，全部从佛罗里达州的肯尼迪航天中心发射。阿波罗4号到阿波罗6号都是无人测试飞行(正式地讲没有阿波罗2号和阿波罗3号)。
被取消的阿波罗任务
由于预算缩减，阿波罗计划中有很多被取消的任务。包括计划中的阿波罗18号、19号、20号在内，许多种类型的飞行任务被取消。
1967年9月，位于休斯敦的载人航天中心提出了一系列任务以完成登月任务。7个任务类型被提出，每个类型都对特定的航天器和任务进行测试；每一个任务类型的执行都需要前一类型的成功完成。这些任务类型分别是：
A - 无人指令/服务舱(CSM)测试
B - 无人登月舱(LM)测试
C - 载人近地轨道指令/服务舱飞行
D - 载人近地轨道指令/服务舱和登月舱飞行
E - 载人指令/服务舱和登月舱绕地球进行椭圆轨道飞行，远地点7400公里(4600英里)
F - 载人月球轨道指令/服务舱和登月舱飞行
G - 载人登月
之后又增加了H任务，即包括两次月表行走的短暂任务。之后又有J任务，即在3天内执行3次月表行走，并使用月球车的任务。被取消的阿波罗18号、19号、20号就是J任务。
此外，更加遥远的飞行任务——I任务——也被计划过。构思中的月球轨道探测任务被设想为服务舱长时间装载科学仪器环绕月球航行。当最后任务的缩减已成为现实时，这样的任务计划被合并到真正被执行了的J任务中。 |
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楼主 |
发表于 1-7-2006 08:45 PM
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宇航员
以下的宇航员曾在阿波罗计划中执行过飞行任务：
来自水星计划7人
瓦尔特·施艾拉 – 阿波罗7号
艾伦·谢泼德 – 阿波罗14号
来自第二组宇航员
尼尔·阿姆斯特朗 – 阿波罗11号
弗兰克·博尔曼 – 阿波罗8号
皮特·康拉德 – 阿波罗12号, 天空实验室2号
吉姆·洛威尔 – 阿波罗8号, 阿波罗13号
詹姆斯·麦克迪维特 – 阿波罗9号
托马斯·斯塔福德 – 阿波罗10号, 阿波罗－联盟实验计划
约翰·杨 – 阿波罗10号, 阿波罗16号
来自第三组宇航员
巴兹·奥尔德林 – 阿波罗11号
威廉·安德斯 – 阿波罗8号
艾伦·宾 – 阿波罗12号, 天空实验室3号
尤金·塞尔南 – 阿波罗10号, 阿波罗17号
迈克尔·科林斯 – 阿波罗11号
瓦尔特·康尼翰 – 阿波罗7号
唐·埃斯利 – 阿波罗7号
理查德·高尔登 – 阿波罗12号
拉塞尔·施威卡特 – 阿波罗9号
大卫·斯科特 – 阿波罗9号, 阿波罗15号
来自第四组宇航员
哈里森·施密特 – 阿波罗17号
来自第五组宇航员
查尔斯·杜克 – 阿波罗16号
罗纳德·埃万斯 – 阿波罗17号
弗莱德·海斯 – 阿波罗13号
詹姆斯·艾尔文 – 阿波罗15号
肯·马丁利 – 阿波罗16号
艾德加·米切尔 – 阿波罗14号
斯图尔特·罗萨 – 阿波罗14号
杰克·斯威格特 – 阿波罗13号
阿尔弗莱德·沃尔登 – 阿波罗15号 |
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楼主 |
发表于 1-7-2006 09:02 PM
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发表于 1-7-2006 09:13 PM
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发表于 1-7-2006 10:08 PM
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发表于 1-7-2006 10:18 PM
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阿波罗8号 (二)
任务过程
阿波罗8号发射。The photo is a double exposure, as the Moon was not visible at the time of launch (NASA)
发射和月球转移轨道射入
阿波罗8号发射。The photo is a double exposure, as the Moon was not visible at the time of launch (NASA)阿波罗8号发射于1968年12月21日早晨7点51分00秒(东部标准时间)。除了几个小问题，整个发射过程几乎是完美的。S-IC第1级推进器的表现比预计低了0.75%，使其燃烧时间比计划中延长了2.45秒。在第2级火箭燃烧即将结束时，火箭出现了纵向藕合振动，弗兰克·博尔曼估计振动频率为12赫兹，振幅约为±0.25 G (±2.5 m/s² ) 。火箭将航天器送入了离地球181.5千米至191.3千米高的地球轨道，轨道周期为88分钟10秒。航天器在轨道中的远地点也比预期稍远，计划中应是圆形轨道，距地球185千米。S-IC级掉入了大西洋，准确位置为北緯30度12分、西經74度7分 ；S-II级掉落在北緯31度50分、西經37度17分 。
从发射前15秒至发射后3分钟的空中至地面通话
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki ... pollo_8_liftoff.ogg
接下来的两小时38分钟里，3位宇航员和地面指挥一直在检查指令舱是否正常工作，并且能够开始月球转移轨道射入(Trans-Lunar Injection‎，TLI‎ ) ，能够将航天器开始离开地球轨道，瞄准月球轨道的一次点火。同时，3位宇航员将太空舱从一个火箭有效载荷转换成了一个航天器。S-IVB第3级火箭也必须保持正常运转状态。前一次的无人测试中，S-IVB第3级没能重新点火。
整个飞行过程中有3名指令舱宇航通讯员轮换执行与阿波罗8号联系的工作。一般情况下，只有指令舱宇航通讯员与宇航员直接对话。迈克尔·科林斯是3人中第1个值班的，他在任务发射两小时27分钟22秒后告知阿波罗8号“阿波罗8号，可以执行月球转移轨道射入。(Apollo 8, you are Go for TLI.‎ )”这个命令意味着指挥中心正式允许阿波罗8号前往月球。接下来的12分钟里，3位宇航员检查着航天器和火箭以准备点火。S-IVB第3级火箭准时点火，并且按照计划燃烧了5分钟17秒。这次点火将航天器的速度提升到10,822 米/秒，燃烧结束时高度达到346.7 千米。这个速度也是人类历史上的记录。
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki ... lo_8_go_for_TLI.ogg
指令舱宇航通讯员迈克尔·科林斯允许阿波罗8号执行月球转移轨道射入
燃烧完成之后，S-IVB级火箭已经完成使命，可以被丢弃了。3位宇航员掉转了指令舱以便为S-IVB级火箭拍摄一些照片，也练习了与S-IVB级火箭编队飞行。指令舱被掉转后，3位宇航员首次看到了他们正在远离的地球。这是人类第一次看到地球全景。
博尔曼开始担心S-IVB级火箭与指令/服务舱靠得太近，并向指挥中心建议the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control at first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters on the Service Module to add 3 ft/s (0.9 m/s) away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After much discussion it was decided to burn in this direction anyway but at 9 ft/s (2.7 m/s). These discussions ended up putting the crew an hour behind their flight plan.
发射5小时后，指挥中心指挥 the S-IVB booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change its trajectory such that it would flyby the Moon and enter into a solar orbit, so as to pose no future hazard to the crew. It went into a 0.99 by 0.92 AU solar orbit with an 倾角 of 23.47°and a period of 340.80 days.
阿波罗8号成员成为了第一批穿越范艾伦辐射带的人类。Although it was predicted that the passage through the belts would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest X-ray or 1 milligray (during the course of a year, the average human receives a dose of 2 to 3 mGy), there was still interest in the radiation dosages on the crew. So each crewmember wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that could be read back to the ground as well as three passive film dosimeters that show the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the average radiation dose of the crew was 1.6 mGy
任务数据
指令/服务舱质量：28,817千克
地球轨道
近地点：181.5千米
远地点：191.3千米
倾角：32.51°
周期：88.17分钟
月球轨道
近月点：111.9千米
远月点：311.1千米
倾角： 12°
周期：128.7分钟
月球转移轨道射入
1968年12月21日 15:41:38 UTC
土星5号的S-IVB第3级成功地2次点火。总燃烧时间为318秒。阿波罗8号从近地轨道的7793米/秒轨道速度加速到进入月球转移轨道的10,822米/秒逃逸速度。
相关资料
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo8info.html
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_08a_Summary.htm
http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch20-6.html
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-5.html
http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo8.htm
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm
http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm
http://cgi.canoe.ca/SpaceArchive/981221_30.html
http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/S2ch3.htm
[ 本帖最后由 威尼斯的狼 于 1-7-2006 10:22 PM 编辑 ] |
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发表于 2-7-2006 02:46 PM
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发表于 2-7-2006 03:18 PM
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阿波罗11号
阿姆斯特朗踏上月球表面的瞬间
阿波罗11号（Apollo 11）是由美国国家航空航天局(NASA)发射的第一艘载人登月宇宙飞船，在阿波罗载人登月计划中是第5次执行载人任务。阿波罗11号发射于1969年7月16日。7月20日，尼尔·阿姆斯特朗与巴兹·奥尔德林成为了首次踏上月球的人类。
任务徽章
任务数据
任务名称： 阿波罗11号
呼号： 指令/服务舱：哥伦比亚号
登月舱：鹰号
成员： 3人
发射： 1969年7月16日
13点32分00秒 UTC，
佛罗里达州肯尼迪航天中心
LC 39A
登月： 1969年7月20日,
20点17分43秒 UTC
静海
0° 40' 26.69" N,23° 28' 22.69" E [1]
(根据IAU Mean Earth Polar Axis 的坐标系统)
月表舱外
活动时间： 2小时31分钟40秒
月球表面
停留时间： 21小时36分钟20秒
采集标本： 21.55 千克 (47.5磅)
返回： 1969年7月24日
16:50:35 UTC
北緯13度19分、西經169度9分
月球轨道
停留时间： 58小时30分钟25.79秒
Mass: (see mission
parameters)
任务成员合影
左起：阿姆斯特朗、科林斯、奥尔德林
任务成员
尼尔·阿姆斯特朗
(曾执行双子星8号以及阿波罗11号任务)，指令长
巴兹·奥尔德林
(曾执行双子星12号以及阿波罗11号任务)，登月舱驾驶员
迈克尔·科林斯
(曾执行双子星10号以及阿波罗11号任务)，指令/服务舱驾驶员
替补成员
吉姆·洛威尔
(曾执行双子星7号、12号、阿波罗8号以及阿波罗13号任务)，指令长
弗莱德·海斯
(曾执行阿波罗13号任务)，登月舱驾驶员
比尔·安德斯
(曾执行阿波罗8号)，指令舱驾驶员
支持团队成员
罗纳德·埃万斯
(曾执行阿波罗17号)
肯·马丁利
(曾执行阿波罗16号, STS-4, STS-51-C)
杰克·斯威格特
(曾执行阿波罗13号任务)
Bill Pogue
(曾执行Skylab 4)
任务介绍
发射与登月
阿波罗11号任务于当地时间1969年7月16日9时32分A.M.在肯尼迪航天中心发射升空，12分钟后进入地球轨道。在环绕地球一圈半后，第三级子火箭点火，航天器开始向月球航行。30分钟后，指令舱与服务舱从土星5号分离，在转向后与登月转接器(Lunar Module Adaptor)中的登月舱连接。
阿波罗11号于7月19日经过月球背面，很快点燃了主火箭並进入了月球轨道。在环绕月球的过程中，三名宇航员在空中辨认出了计划中的登月点。
奥尔德林在月球上留下的鞋印。这是一个测试月球表面风化层的实验的一部分
阿波罗计划中的第一个登陆点在静海（Mare Tranquillitatis）南部，在Sabine D环型山西南20公里处。这个登陆点被选择的原因是它比较平整(来自于流浪者8号(Ranger 8)、勘察员5号(Surveyor 5)以及月球轨道器(Lunar Orbiter)提供的信息)，也就不会在降落和舱外活动时制造太多困难。登陆之后，阿姆斯特朗把登陆点称做“静海基地”。
7月20日，当飞船在月球背面时，呼号为“鹰号”的登月舱从呼号为“哥伦比亚号”的指令舱中分离。科林斯独自一人留在“哥伦比亚”上，围着登月舱飞行了数圈，仔仔细细地检查了一遍，以确保这个飞行器一切正常。检查过后，科林斯做了一个简单的告别手势——“两位多加保重”——便离开了。科林斯的任务是留在指令舱中并绕月球环行，在以后的24个小时中只能监测控制中心与鹰号之间的通讯并祈祷登月一切顺利。如果鹰号发生了以外并且不能够从月面起飞的话(可能性极大)，科林斯就只能独自一人返回地球。
装载着阿波罗11号的土星5号(1969年7月16日
很快，阿姆斯特朗和奥尔德林启动了鹰号的推进器并开始下降。他们很快意识到它“飞过头”了：他们向月面降落时，表明计算机过载的警报器开始响起。鹰号在下降弹道中多飞了4秒，也就是说登月点会离计划若干公里远。两位宇航员听到警报，便无心欣赏窗外的景色；在休斯顿，飞行控制指挥官史蒂夫·贝尔斯(Steve Bales)面临着一个关键的、一刹那间的抉择——终止登月计划(这也意味着终止整个飞行计划，因为飞行器上的燃料仅够进行一次尝试)，或者命令宇航员按照计划行动，不要理会登月舱计算机出现的问题。贝尔斯后来承认，他是“凭着直觉”允许阿姆斯特朗尝试登月的。重新开始注意窗外之后，两位宇航员现在发现他们正处在一块岩石和一片硬地之间。计算机失灵导致他们飞过了预选着陆区，而燃料也很快就要耗尽了。此时，阿姆斯特朗选择了手动控制登月舱。登月舱不断下降，燃料开始耗尽——登月舱位于月面上空大约9米，所剩燃料仅够用30秒钟——阿姆斯特朗在遍布砾石和陨石坑的月面冷静地找到一处适合于着陆的地方，并驾驶登月舱稳稳地降落在月球上。准确的登陆时间是1969年7月20日下午4时17分43秒(休斯顿时间)。
Buzz Aldrin poses on the Moon allowing Neil Armstrong to photograph both of them using the visor's reflection.
阿姆斯特朗和奥尔德林互相看了一眼，会心地笑了。休斯顿飞行控制中心内鸦雀无声，大家都在静静地等待着。终于，他们听到了阿姆斯特朗的声音：“休斯顿，这里是静海基地。‘鹰’着陆成功。”飞行控制中心顿时爆发出一阵热烈的欢呼声。在登月舱里，阿姆斯特朗和奥尔德林把手伸过仪表盘，默默地握了一下。
The program alarms were "executive overflows", indicating that the computer could not finish its work in the time allotted. The cause was later determined to be that the LM rendezvous radar was left on during the descent, causing the computer to spend unplanned time servicing the unused radar. Steve Bales received a Medal of Freedom for his "go" call under pressure.
Photo of the actual plaque left on the moon (attached to the ladder of the LM Descent Stage).
At 2:56 UTC on July 21, six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong made his descent to the Moon surface and took his famous "one giant leap for mankind." Aldrin joined him, and the two spent two-and-a-half hours drilling core samples, photographing what they saw and collecting rocks
They planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package (EASEP) and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through Eagle's twin triangular windows, which gave them a 60° field of view. Preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled. Armstrong had some initial difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his PLSS. According to veteran moonwalker John Young, a redesign of the LM to incorporate a smaller hatch was not followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack, so some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.
A visible shockwave formed as the Saturn V encountered Maximum Dynamic Pressure (Max Q) at about 1 minute 20 seconds into the flight (altitude 12.5 km, 4 km downrange, velocity 440m/s).
The Remote Control Unit controls on Armstrong's chest prevented him from seeing his feet. While climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) folded against Eagle's side and activate the TV camera. The first images used a Slow-scan television system and were picked up at Goldstone in the USA but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle Creek in Australia. Minutes later the TV was switched to normal television, and the feed was switched to the more sensitive radio telescope station at the Parkes Observatory in Australia. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and were immediately broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.
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发表于 2-7-2006 05:30 PM
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阿波罗11号 (二)
After describing the surface ("very fine grained... almost like a powder"), Armstrong stepped off Eagle's footpad and into history as the first human to set foot on another world. He reported that moving in the Moon's gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was "perhaps even easier than the simulations."
In addition to fulfilling President John F. Kennedy's mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s, Apollo 11 was an engineering test of the Apollo system; therefore, Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post-landing condition. He then collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. He removed the TV camera from the MESA, made a panoramic sweep, and mounted it on a tripod 12 m (40 ft) from the LM. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA.
Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backwards, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into Eagle's shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, though the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.
Together the astronauts planted the U.S. flag, then took a phone call from President Richard Nixon.
The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits, the integrated thermal meteoroid garment.
The crew of Apollo 11 in quarantine after returing to earth, visited by Richard Nixon.
They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismograph and a laser ranging retroreflector. Then Armstrong loped about 120 m (400 ft) from the LM to snap photos at the rim of East Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes. He used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes - the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documented sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 min.
During this period Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. Rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, however, so Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.
Lunar ascent and return
Aldrin entered Eagle first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing more than 22 kg (48 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor. Armstrong then jumped to the ladder's third rung and climbed into the LM.
After transferring to LM life support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, one Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. Then they lifted off in Eagle's ascent stage to rejoin CMP Michael Collins aboard Columbia in lunar orbit. Eagle was jettisoned and left in lunar orbit. Later NASA reports mentioned that Eagle's orbit had decayed resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location" on the lunar surface.
After more than 2½ hours on the lunar surface, they returned to Collins on board Columbia, bringing 20.87 kilograms of lunar samples with them. The two Moon-walkers had left behind scientific instruments such as a retroreflector array used for the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. They also left an American flag and other mementos, including a plaque (mounted on the LM Descent Stage ladder) bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and Richard Nixon. The inscription read:
Here Men From Planet Earth
First Set Foot Upon the Moon
July 1969 A.D.
We Came in Peace For All Mankind.
The astronauts returned to earth on July 24, welcomed as heroes. The splashdown point was 北緯13度19分、西經169度9分 , 2,660 km (1,440 nm) east of Wake Island, or 380 km (210 nm) south of Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (15 mi) from the recovery ship, USS Hornet.
The command module is displayed at the National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C.
Contingency television address
The National Archives in Washington, D.C. has a copy of the following contingency memo titled "In Event of Moon Disaster" and dated July 18, 1969, which was prepared by William Safire for President Nixon to read on television, in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon.
Armstrong on lunar surface with gold visor raised. From 16 mm film (NASA).
"Fate has ordained that the men who went to the Moon to explore in peace will stay on the Moon to rest in peace. These brave men, Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, know that there is no hope for their recovery. But they also know that there is hope for mankind in their sacrifice.
These two men are laying down their lives in mankind's most noble goal: the search for truth and understanding. They will be mourned by their families and friends; they will be mourned by their nation; they will be mourned by the people of the world; they will be mourned by a Mother Earth that dared send two of her sons into the unknown.
In their exploration, they stirred the people of the world to feel as one; in their sacrifice, they bind more tightly the brotherhood of man. In ancient days, men looked at stars and saw their heroes in the constellations. In modern times, we do much the same, but our heroes are epic men of flesh and blood.
Others will follow, and surely find their way home. Man's search will not be denied. But these men were the first, and they will remain the foremost in our hearts.
For every human being who looks up at the Moon in the nights to come will know that there is some corner of another world that is forever mankind."
The last line of the statement is reminiscent of a Rupert Brooke poem called "The Soldier". The poem starts:
If I should die, think only this of me:
That there's some corner of a foreign field
That is forever England.
Following this address, radio communications with the moon would have been cut off, the astronauts left alone to die, while a clergyman was to commend their souls to "the deepest of the deep" in the fashion of a burial at sea. |
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发表于 10-7-2006 10:07 AM
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发表于 10-7-2006 09:17 PM
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阿波罗13号 (一)
阿波罗13号发射于1970年4月11日。阿波罗13号在计划中是第3次登月的任务，但是由于飞船在抵达月球前发生的严重故障，无法执行登月计划，3名宇航员最终成功返回地球。
阿波罗13号是美国的第三次载人登月任务，也是阿波罗计划中的第七次载人任务。发射两天之后，指令/服务舱中的服务舱部分中发生的一次爆炸损失了大量氧气和电力，三位宇航员不得不使用登月舱作为“救生艇”。指令舱系统虽然仍可以工作，但为了返回大气层时有足够的电力，被完全关闭了。三位宇航员事故之后经历了缺少电力、正常温度以及饮用水的问题，但仍然成功返回了地球。
任务徽章
任务数据
任务名称： 阿波罗13号
呼号： 指令/服务舱(CSM)：奥德赛
登月舱(LM)：水瓶座
成员： 3人
发射： 1970年4月11日
19:13:00 UTC
肯尼迪航天中心
LC 39A
飞略月球：
(近月点) 1970年4月15日
00:21:00 UTC
距月球254.3千米
距地球400,171千米
返回： 1970年4月17日
18:07:41 UTC
21° 38' 24" S - 165° 21' 42" W
飞行时间： 5天22小时54分钟41秒
质量： CSM 28,945千克;
LM 15,235千克
成员合影
任务成员
吉姆·洛威尔 (曾执行双子星7号、12号、阿波罗8号以及阿波罗13号任务)，指令长
杰克·斯威格特 (曾执行阿波罗13号任务)，指令/服务舱驾驶员
弗莱德·海斯 (曾执行阿波罗13号任务)，登月舱驾驶员
替补成员
约翰·杨
指令长
杰克·斯威格特
指令/服务舱驾驶员
查尔斯·杜克
登月舱驾驶员
支持团队成员
Vance Brand
(曾执行阿波罗-联盟, STS-5, STS-41-B以及STS-51)
Jack Lousma
(曾执行天空实验室3号以及STS-3)
Bill Pogue
(曾执行天空实验室4号)
Joe Kerwin
(曾执行天空实验室2号)
变更
肯·马丁利是原计划中的指令/服务舱驾驶员，但是他由于接触了风疹，在发射前3天被杰克·斯威格特替换。他后来成为担任了阿波罗16号任务的指令/服务舱驾驶员。
任务数据
质量： CM 28,945 kg; LM 15,235 kg
近地点： 181.5千米
远地点： 185.6千米
倾角: 33.5°
周期： 88.07分钟
氧气罐爆炸
1970年4月14日，02:08:53.555 UTC
离地球321,860千米。
距月球最近点
1970年4月15日，00:21:00 UTC
距月球约254.3公里；
距地球400,171公里(此距离可能是一个记录，请参阅下文)。
请参看
Splashdown
月球人造物体列表
名言
著名的错误的名言：“休斯顿，我们遇到问题了。”
真实的名言：“好，休斯顿，我们这里已经出问题了” [1]，出自斯威格特之口。稍后洛威尔则回报了一句类似的话：“休斯顿，我们已经出问题了。”
任务介绍
阿波罗13号任务开始时也曾出现过一次不甚闻名但同样危险的事故。第二级火箭燃烧时，中间的5号推进器提前关闭了。工程师们事后发现这个问题的起因是纵向藕合振动(pogo oscillation)，而这种情况足以把第二级火箭撕裂。当时推进器承受着16赫兹的频率，68g的重力，发动机架被拉长了7.6厘米(约3英寸)。幸运的是，震动导致了推进器压力降低，控制电脑自动将其关闭。后来，根据这个问题，This was later traced to amplification of the pogo that had occurred on previous flights by an unexpected interaction with the cavitation in the turbopumps. Later missions had anti-pogo devices, as had already been planned since before 阿波罗13号, which solved the problem.
困难
在航天器在去月球的途中离地球321,860千米时，服务舱(SM)中的2号氧气罐发生了爆炸。Teflon insulation covering damaged electrical wires powering the stirrer motor caught fire when power was applied. The fire caused a pressure increase above the tank's nominal 1,000 lbf/in²; (7 MPa), and the tank exploded. This explosion damaged other parts of the service module, including the number 1 oxygen tank. At the time of the explosion, however, the true cause was not known; one conjecture was a meteoroid impact. The loss of both oxygen tanks in the service module and thus the oxygen required to create electrical power for the Command/Service Modules (CSM) meant that the CSM had to be completely shut down. The 指令舱 (CM) contained batteries for use during re-entry, after the Service Module was jettisoned, but these would only last about ten hours, and needed to be saved for re-entry. The crew survived by using the Lunar Module (LM, still attached to the CM) as a "lifeboat".
The damage to the CSM meant that the Moon-landing mission (originally intended to land at the Fra Mauro Highlands) had to be aborted; a single pass around the Moon was made and the spacecraft returned to Earth in what is called a modified circumlunar, cislunar, or free return trajectory, which goes completely around the moon in a Figure 8 geometry but is not considered a true orbit, as it is fleeting and there is no capture within the moon's gravity well. Considerable ingenuity under extreme pressure was required from both the crew and the flight controllers to figure out how to jury rig the craft for the crew's safe return, with much of the world watching the drama on television. One of the major stumbling blocks in this was that the LEM "lifeboat" was equipped to sustain two people for two days, and it would now have to sustain three people for four days. The LEM "lifeboat" procedure, was actually a procedure that was worked on/created during a training simulation (in the simulator) not long before the flight of 阿波罗13号.[1](Lovell and Kluger 83-87) One of the most critical problems was that the lithium hydroxide carbon dioxide filters in the LM would not last for all four days, and the CM's spare filters were the wrong shape for the LM's filter receptacle; an adapter had to be fabricated from materials in the spacecraft.
To accomplish a safe return to Earth, a significant course correction to place the spacecraft on a free return trajectory was required. This would normally be a simple procedure using the service module propulsion engine. However, the flight controllers did not know the extent of the damage the service module had suffered and did not want to risk firing the main engine. Instead, the course correction would have to be performed by firing the lunar module's descent engine. After extensive discussion, engineers on the ground found it was possible. The initial maneuver to change to a free return trajectory was made within hours of the accident. The descent engine was fired again after passage around the Moon in order to accelerate the spacecraft's return to Earth, and later for a minor course correction.
As re-entry to Earth's atmosphere approached, NASA took the unusual step of jettisoning the Service Module first, while the Lunar Module was still attached to the 指令舱. The LM thrusters were used to maneuver the CM/LM stack to point its windows at the departing SM, and photos were taken. When the crew saw the damaged service module, they reported that the access panel covering the O2 tanks and fuel cells had been blown off.
阿波罗13号 damaged Service Module (NASA)
There was some fear that the extensive condensation in the CM, due to reduced temperatures during the return leg, might have seriously damaged the electronics of the 指令舱, which would become apparent upon activation. But the equipment worked perfectly when activated, at least partly due to the extensive design modifications made to the CM after the Apollo 1 fire.
The crew returned unharmed to Earth, although Haise had a urinary tract infection resulting from the scarcity of potable water on the damaged ship and the difficulty of disposing of urine, and had to be treated in an infirmary.
A successful splashdown (NASA)
While the crew was unfortunate to have this kind of major malfunction, they were still extremely lucky that it occurred on the first leg of the mission when they had a maximum of supplies, equipment, and power to use in the emergency. If the explosion had occurred while in orbit around the moon, or on the return leg after the LM had been jettisoned, the crew probably would not have survived.
After the completion of the mission, there was a full investigation of the incident and the craft was modified to prevent future occurrences of the fault.
Jim Lovell and Jeffrey Kluger's book about the mission, Lost Moon, was later turned into a successful movie, 阿波罗13号, starring Tom Hanks, Bill Paxton and Kevin Bacon as the Apollo crewmen. |
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发表于 10-7-2006 09:22 PM
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阿波罗13号 （二）
事故的起因
The explosion on 阿波罗13号 led to a lengthy investigation of the underlying cause. Thanks to detailed manufacturing records and logs of mission problems, the failure of the faulty oxygen tank was tracked to multiple faults that were not problems individually, but nearly led to disaster on this mission.
Liquid gases are very difficult to handle, and most storage containers holding them are unsealed so that pressure from expanding gas will not cause the container to fail (much like freezing water will shatter even the strongest sealed container). Apollo's liquid oxygen tank was a marvel of engineering, able to hold several hundred pounds of highly pressurized liquid gas to supply the craft with oxygen, fuel for electricity (along with hydrogen) and water from the by-product of the fuel cells. Left alone, the tank was capable of safely holding liquid oxygen at supercritical pressures for years before it evaporated because of its design and insulation. Unfortunately, the very characteristic that made the tank useful made internal inspection impossible.
The tank was made of several basic components that were relevant to the accident:
A thermostat to control the heater within the tank that sped the evaporation of the liquid into gaseous oxygen;
A thermometer to determine the temperature of the heater;
Valves and piping that were designed to allow the tank to be completely emptied of liquid by forcing gas into the tank;
An interior coating of teflon that protected the wiring from the extremely cold gas; and
An internal fan to stir the liquid oxygen (liquid oxygen will turn into a "slush" at these pressures if it is allowed to sit for a long period of time).
These were the basic design, manufacturing and operational problems that led to the accident.
The thermostat was originally designed to handle the 28 volt supply that would be used in the 指令舱. However, the specification for the tank was changed so that it had to handle 65 volts on the launch pad. Most of the wiring was changed to handle the higher voltage, but the thermostat was not. Engineers at Saturn V subcontractor Beechcraft, later admitted they knew they had put 65 volts through a line designed for only 28 volts. The tank then made it into the 阿波罗13号 Service Module which crippled the mission.
The thermometer was designed to read out at the highest operational temperature of the heater, about 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Higher temperatures registered at 100 °F, but the thermostat was supposed to cut out at 80 °F (27 °C), making higher temperatures impossible.
During assembly, the structure carrying the tank that failed was dropped about 2 inches (5 cm). The exterior was undamaged, but the pipes that directed flow within the tank became misaligned.
For ground testing the tank was filled. However, when it came time to empty it, the problem with the piping was discovered. As such, the tank could not be properly emptied except by running the heater to evaporate the liquid gas. Not using this tank would have delayed the mission and there was no alternative tank available. Lovell was aware of the decision to use the heater to evaporate the oxygen, which was calculated to take a few days at the highest operational temperature of 80 °F (27 °C).
However, when the heater was turned on continuously, the higher voltage fused the thermostat, which allowed the heater to keep heating up. Because the thermometer did not register temperatures higher than 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 degrees Celsius), the monitoring equipment did not pick this up. The current recorder in the power supply showed that the heater was not cycling on and off, but no-one noticed it at the time. Instead of taking several days, the gas evaporated in hours, and the interior of the tank kept heating up, reaching an estimated 800 degrees Fahrenheit (430 °C). This burned off the teflon coating, leaving the wires inside the tank exposed.
The rest was inevitable. When the tank was refilled with oxygen, it became a bomb waiting to go off. The order to run the "cryo stir" to run the fans set off sparks inside the tank which led to the explosion.
The close proximity of the oxygen tanks exacerbated the situation. Although the second tank survived the explosion, its valves were damaged which allowed the oxygen within to leak out. In future Apollo missions, the two oxygen tanks were situated farther apart.
Mission notes
There was no time to properly replace the original lunar plaque on Aquarius (which bore Mattingly's name), so Jim Lovell was given a replacement (with Swigert's name) to place over the original plaque once they landed on the moon. However, because the lunar landing was never made, Lovell kept the plaque, which is one of the few mementos from the mission that he has on display at his home.
As a result of following the free return trajectory, the altitude of 阿波罗13号 over the lunar far side was approximately 100 km greater than the corresponding orbital altitude on the remaining Apollo lunar missions. This could mean an all-time altitude record for human spaceflight—not even superseded as of 2006—but this may well not be the case: the variation in distance between Earth and the Moon owing to the eccentricity of the Moon's orbit about Earth is much larger than this 100 km. The Guinness Book of Records listed this flight as having the absolute altitude record for a manned spacecraft, and Lovell should have received a certificate from them attesting to this record (Lovell stated in the book Lost Moon that apart from the plaque and a couple of other pieces of salvage, the only other item he has regarding this mission was a letter from Charles Lindbergh).
The splashdown point was 南緯21度38分、西經165度22分
, SE of American Samoa and 6.5 km (4 mi) from the recovery ship, USS Iwo Jima.
阿波罗13号的指令舱在返回后被检查时，it was found that the crew had tried to wire up a manual deployment switch for the recovery parachutes. However - they had in fact wired the switch to the parachute jettison control. If they had decided to use their jury-rigged manual override they would have in reality released the parachutes from the 指令舱 and plunged to their deaths in the ocean below.
Superstitious people have associated the belief that 13 is an unlucky number with the mission, especially due to the fact that the mission began at 13:13 CST, the problems began on April 13, and the mission is called 阿波罗13号.
由于阿波罗13号无法登月，但三位宇航员安全返回地球，所以此次任务被称为一次“成功的失败”。
徽章
阿波罗13号的徽章上有3匹奔马，题词Ex luna, scientia(来自月球的知识)，以及罗马数字的任务数字(13)。和阿波罗11号的徽章一起，两次任务的徽章是阿波罗计划各次任务徽章中仅有的没有任务成员名字的(考虑到发射前3天有任务成员的替换，这算得上是一次幸运的例外)。
Relics
The 指令舱 shell was formerly at the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, Paris. The interior components were removed during the investigation of the accident and reasembled into BP-1102A, the water egress training module, and were subsequently on display at the Museum of Natural History and Science in Louisville, Kentucky until 2000. The 指令舱 and the internal components were reasembled, and Odyssey is currently on display at the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center, Hutchinson, Kansas. The lunar module burned up in Earth's atmosphere 17 April, 1970, having been targeted to enter over the Pacific Ocean to reduce the possibility of contamination from a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) on board (had the mission proceeded as planned, the RTG would have been used to power the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package, and then remained on the Moon). The RTG survived reentry (as designed) and landed in the Tonga Trench. While it will remain radioactive for approximately 2000 years, it does not appear to be releasing any of its 3.9 kg of radioactive plutonium. [2] NASA has expressed a wish that the RTG be recovered.
荧屏
From the Earth to the Moon has one episode devoted to the mission, from the perspective of the television reporters covering the mission.
阿波罗13号(1995年) - 由朗·霍华德导演的电影，由汤姆·汉克斯、凯文·贝肯、比尔·派克斯顿扮演三位宇航员，艾德·哈里斯出演金·克兰茨。此片基于吉姆·洛威尔所著《与月球失之交臂(Lost Moon)》一书。
In the 1993 film Falling Down, Michael Douglas' character compares himself to the crew of 阿波罗13号, claiming that he had passed the "point of no return" as they had, thus causing them to circle the moon.
The 1974 movie "Houston, We've Got a Problem", while set around the 阿波罗13号 incident, is truthfully a fictional drama about the crises faced by ground personnel when the emergency disrupts their work schedules and places additional stress on their lives. Only a couple of news clips and a narrator's solemn voice deals with the actual Apollo problems. In a letter to TV Guide, astronaut Jim Lovell criticized the movie, saying it would have been safer on the stricken spaceship.
外部链接
http://www.astronautics.org.uk/apollo13.html
http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo13.htm
http://www.space.gs/17-apr-2006-nasa.html
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.41.htm
http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nas ... 6776_1970076776.pdf
http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/mission_trans/AS13_TEC.PDF
http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/apr05/2697
http://www.archive.org/details/HoustonWeveGotAProblem |
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返回标本
阿波罗计划的各次登月任务共带回了381.7千克的月球岩石标本，大部分目前储存在休斯敦林顿·约翰逊太空中心的月球物质回收和回归宇航员检疫实验所中。
通过放射测年后，研究人员发现月表岩石标本与地球相比都很古老。最年轻的月表岩石都比地球上已知的最古老岩石要久远。月海中的玄武岩标本的年龄多在32亿年左右，高地中的标本甚至达到46亿年的年龄。由此可见，月球是在太阳系早期形成的。
月球岩石标本中最重要的岩石之一，起源石，由大卫·斯科特和詹姆斯·艾尔文在执行阿波罗15号任务时找到。起源石被认为是在月球诞生时形成的。
许多月球岩石似乎集中在微流星形成的撞击环形山中；在地球上由于有较厚的大气层而不可能出现类似情景。
月球任务 返回标本
阿波罗11号 22千克
阿波罗12号 34千克
阿波罗14号 43千克
阿波罗15号 77千克
阿波罗16号 95千克
阿波罗17号 111千克 |
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变色卡
千斤顶
只针对阿波罗8号作了几个月的准备。计划中的包括的硬件只被使用了几次：土星5号火箭此前只发射过两次，而阿波罗计划中也只执行了一次载人任务(阿波罗7号)。但是，阿波罗8号任务的成功为成功完成约翰·肯尼迪在60年代成功登月的计划铺平了道路。
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